So You Want to Be a Forensic Scientist!
WELCOME TO THE FASCINATING WORLD OF FORENSIC SCIENCE
A guide to the many possibilities for satisfying life choices
of careers combining science and service in the interests
of society, justice and public safety.
What is Forensic Science?
What Do Forensic Scientists Do?
- Work
- Ethics
- Testimony
What's a Forensic Scientist?
- How Do I Become a Forensic Scientist?
- How Much Money Will I Make?
- Where Will I Work?
Kinds of Forensic Science: Discipline Sections Within the American Academy of Forensic Sciences
- Criminalistics
- Digital & Multimedia Sciences
- Engineering Sciences
- General
- Jurisprudence
- Odontology
- Pathology/Biology
- Physical Anthropology
- Psychiatry & Behavioral Science
- Questioned Documents
- Toxicology
Resource List
What is Forensic Science?
The word forensic comes from the Latin word forensis: public; to the forum or public discussion; argumentative, rhetorical, belonging to debate or discussion. From there it is a small step to the modern definition of forensic as belonging to, used in or suitable to courts of judicature, or to public discussion or debate. Forensic science is science used in public, in a court, or in the justice system. Any science used for the purposes of the law is a forensic science.
What Do Forensic Scientists Do?
The forensic sciences form a vital part of the entire justice and regulatory system. Some of the different divisions, or disciplines, of forensic science have become identified primarily with law enforcement — an image enhanced by television and movies. This is misleading because forensic scientists are involved in all aspects of criminal cases, and the results of their work may serve either the defense or the prosecution. The forensic scientist's goal is the evenhanded use of all available information to determine the facts and, subsequently, the truth. The forensic scientist's role in the civil justice arena is expanding. Issues range from questions of the validity of a signature on a will, to a claim of product liability, to questions of whether a corporation is complying with environmental laws, and the protection of constitutionally guaranteed individual rights. Forensic science is a rewarding career where the love of science can be applied to the good of society, public health, and public safety.
Work
The work of the forensic scientist may reduce the number of cases entering the overloaded court system by assisting the decision-makers before a case reaches the court. The facts developed by forensic scientists, based on scientific investigation, not circumstantial evidence or the sometimes unreliable testimony of witnesses, may convince prosecuting or defense attorneys, a grand jury, or a judge that an issue does not merit a court hearing.
The work of the forensic scientist at times proves the existence of a crime or makes connections to a crime. The forensic scientist provides information and expert opinion to investigators, attorneys, judges, and juries which is helpful in determining the innocence or guilt of the accused.
The rule of law is based on the belief that the legal process results in justice. This has come under some question in recent years. Of course, the forensic scientist cannot change skepticism and mistrust single-handedly. He can, however, contribute to restoring faith in judicial processes by using science and technology in the search for truth in civil, criminal, and regulatory matters.
The forensic scientist is entirely responsible for the work he performs; no one else can write his report nor testify to his opinion. However, it takes teamwork to solve a crime. Scientists work closely with police officers, sheriff's deputies, prosecuting and defense attorneys, DEA, CIA, and FBI agents, immigration workers, and crime scene investigators, to name a few.
There is a strong requirement for accurate record keeping, chain-of-custody documentation, stringent quality control, and data management. Chain-of-custody guarantees that the integrity of evidence is maintained at all times. The time, date, location, and signature are required when transporting a piece of evidence within the laboratory or to an outside facility.
Ethics
The forensic scientist, no matter where or by whom he is employed, works only for truth. He must make sure that the examination is complete, the tests performed are done correctly, the interpretation of the data is thorough, the written report is correct and easily understood by a non-scientist, and the testimony is complete and truthful. Anything less is not acceptable.
Testimony
Testimony is the verbal statement of a witness, under oath, to the trier of fact, that is, the judge and/or jury. The ordinary witness can testify only on the basis of personal knowledge of a situation gained through the use of his five senses. He may not express opinions formed on any other basis. The forensic scientist, on the other hand, can testify not only on the basis of personal knowledge, but also in the form of opinion based on his informed evaluation of the evidence presented and scientific tests performed and interpreted within the bounds of his skills, experience, and ability. He is an "expert" witness as opposed to an ordinary or "fact" witness.
There are four criteria that are generally required to qualify a person as an expert witness. They are: educational degrees received, number of years of occupational experience in the field, membership in professional organizations, and professional articles or books that the person has published.
The forensic scientist, as an expert witness, must be able to explain complex chemical reactions, the working of scientific instruments, or medical conditions in simple everyday language understandable to anyone, not scientific jargon or "gobbledegook." This is not easy. It is so difficult that before a new scientist is allowed to testify, a mock court is held so the scientist can learn how it feels to testify, and how to convert his hard-earned scientific knowledge into simple terms.
The forensic scientist must be impartial and unbiased. The forensic scientist must tell all of the truth, "the whole truth," no matter what it is or whom it hurts or helps. An expert opinion can be offered only if there are scientific facts upon which to base it.
In court, the work of the forensic scientist is carefully examined to find any flaws, whether in the test performed, the interpretation of the results, or the science upon which opinion is based. Whether the forensic scientist "expert" is hired by the prosecution or defense, the opposing attorney will try to undermine or discredit testimony which is against his client.
The forensic witness must be qualified and knowledgeable of both his special area of scientific knowledge and expertise and the rules of evidence that govern the admissibility of opinions and conclusions.
The forensic scientist often spends long hours testifying clearly and concisely in judicial proceedings concerning scientific information and what it means. Throughout he must maintain a posture of impartial professionalism.
"If the law has made you a witness, remain a man of science.
You have no victim to avenge, no guilty or innocent person to convict
or save — you must bear testimony within the limits of science."
— Dr. P.C.H. Brouardel
19th Century French Medico-legalist
What's A Forensic Scientist?
A forensic scientist is first a scientist. When he applies his scientific knowledge to assist juries, attorneys, and judges in understanding science, he is a forensic scientist.
Forensic scientists are thinkers, good with details, good with putting pieces of a puzzle together, and curious. Some scientists work in laboratories and some also go out to places where crimes are committed (crime scenes). Others teach in colleges and universities.
How Do I Become a Forensic Scientist?
You will need:
• a bachelor's degree — get one in science; some forensic sciences require
advanced degrees; take chemistry, biology, math, and English composition
• good speaking skills — take public speaking, join the drama club,
toastmasters, the debate team
• good note-taking skills — you can't subscribe to a service or depend on
Cliffs Notes in real life!
• the ability to write an understandable scientific report
• intellectual curiosity
• personal integrity
How Much Money Will I Make?
Income in the forensic sciences varies greatly depending upon your degree, your actual job, where you work, and how many hours you work. You may never "get rich" but you will have a good income. You will be satisfied with your job, knowing you are contributing to justice — keeping the good guys on the street and helping put the bad guys in jail. Forensic scientists work different hours, depending upon what they do. Some work in forensic laboratories and work 40 hours a week, Monday through Friday. Others work out in the field on digs and may work different hours. Still others are "on call" and work after their regular shift and receive overtime or compensatory (comp) time. Essentially every branch or forensic science offers opportunity for personal growth, career advancement, and increasing financial compensation.
Where Will I Work?
Forensic scientists work in laboratories, at crime scenes, in offices, and in morgues. They may work for federal, state and local government, forensic laboratories, medical examiners offices, hospitals, universities, toxicology laboratories, police departments, medical examiner/coroner offices, or as independent forensic science consultants.
Disaster Mortuary Operations Response Team (DMORT)
DMORT is a branch of the Federal Emergency Management Association (FEMA). Teams are sent on an "as needed" basis to mass disasters or large criminal cases. Members are sent for two weeks to any destination in the world and may extend their time as needed. DMORT is used to assist already existing forensic teams.
Kinds of Forensic Science: Disciplines Within the American Academy of Forensic Sciences
The American Academy of Forensic Sciences, the largest forensic science organization in the world, is composed of nearly 6,000 scientists organized into eleven sections representing the different areas of interest, activity, education, and expertise of individual members. Each of the following sections will be reviewed in alphabetical order:
• Criminalistics
• Digital & Multimedia Sciences
• Engineering Sciences
• General
• Jurisprudence
• Odontology
• Pathology/Biology
• Physical Anthropology
• Psychiatry & Behavioral Science
• Questioned Documents
• Toxicology
Criminalistics
"Wherever he steps, whatever he touches, whatever he leaves, even unconsciously, will serve as silent evidence against him. Not only his fingerprints or his footprints, but his hair, the fibers from his clothes, the glass he breaks, the tool mark he leaves, the paint he scratches, the blood or semen that he deposits or collects - all these and more bear mute witness against him. This is evidence that does not forget. It is not confused by the excitement of the moment. It is not absent because human witnesses are. It is factual evidence. Physical evidence cannot be wrong; it cannot perjure itself; it cannot be wholly absent. Only its interpretation can err. Only human failure to find it, study and understand it, can diminish its value."
— Paul L. Kirk, PhD
“Father of Criminalistics”
Crime Investigation: Physical Evidence and the Police
Laboratory Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, NY 1953 Chapter 1, page 4.
Test firing of a weapon in the Firearms
Section of a forensic lab.
Scope of Work
Criminalists analyze, compare, identify, and interpret physical evidence. Forensic labs have two primary functions: 1) identifying evidence, and 2) linking suspect, victim, and crime scene through physical evidence. The main role of the criminalist is to objectively apply the techniques of the physical and natural sciences to examine physical evidence. Physical evidence may be anything: evidence so small that a microscope is needed to see it, or as large as a truck. It may be as subtle as a whiff of a flammable gas at an arson scene or as obvious as a pool of blood at a homicide scene. The enormous range of material challenges the ingenuity of the criminalist who examines and identifies hair, fibers, blood, seminal and body fluid stains, alcohol, drugs, paint, glass, botanicals, soil, flammables, and safe insulating material; restores smeared or smudged markings; and identifies firearms and compares bullets, tool markings, and foot prints. In most cases, the amount of the evidence to be tested is very small, such as a drop of blood, a hair, or a piece of glass.
Using analytical skill and practical experience, the criminalist separates important evidence from that having little or no value. Next, the criminalist sorts, compares, and identifies the evidence, using chemicals and instruments, developing useful information for an investigation or trial. He may find, for example, that a bullet has been fired from a particular gun, the blood in the suspect's car is from the victim, or that a fragment of plastic from the scene of a hit-and-run accident has broken off a particular car. These types of analyses are difficult; they require an eye for detail, a broad practical scientific background, and the ability to apply these skills in the laboratory.
Scientist in forensic laboratory keeping the
bench area meticulously clean.
Forensic scientist microscopically examining evidence.
Perhaps the most important task of the criminalist lies in interpreting the results of the tests to determine the truth. This may be the circumstances at the time a crime occurred, or may support a witness' statement. Reconstructing the events of a crime is often very difficult. It requires an understanding of human behavior, of the physical laws and processes involved, and the recognition of how they interact. Finally, any findings must be conveyed to the other parts of the criminal justice system, such as officers and attorneys. This is done by written reports and expert testimony. The criminalist must express conclusions so that technical details are understood by the non-scientist jury, attorneys, and judges.
Trace Analytical System used to examine evidence.
Education and Training
The minimum requirement is a bachelor's degree in chemistry, biology, physics, molecular biology, or a related science. In the future, a master’s degree may be required. Many colleges and universities offer degrees and courses in forensic science. In deciding whether to get a degree in chemistry or biology, or one in forensic science, study the courses offered. At least 24 semester hours of either chemistry or biology is required and math is a must. The title of the degree is not as important as the courses taken.
To keep up with the many advances in science, the criminalist must take continuing education courses all during his career. By passing a very tough examination, the criminalist may become certified by the American Board of Criminalistics (www.criminalistics.com). Entire forensic laboratories may prove their competence by becoming accredited by organizations such as the American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors/Laboratory Accreditation Board (www.ascld-lab.org).
Scientist preparing swabs for DNA testing.
Scientist examining a sheet for biological and trace evidence.
Career Opportunities
Criminalists work in forensic laboratories in police departments, sheriff's offices, district attorney's offices, regional and state agencies, medical examiners' offices, private companies, colleges and universities, and for federal agencies such as the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF), Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), United States Postal Service (USPS), Secret Service (SS), Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the military forces, and the United States Fish and Wildlife Services. Criminalists assist the United States Department of Justice in helping other countries create or update forensic services.
The criminalist may start as a bench scientist after graduating from college and, through education and dedication, work his way up to forensic laboratory director. There are many opportunities to teach at community colleges and universities. As science advances, more criminalists will be needed to perform new tests in an ever-expanding field of evidence.
One of the newest areas of criminalists is wildlife forensics. Poaching violations, the development of state and federal hunting regulations, the Endangered Species Act of 1973, and the United National Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITIES) are some of the factors which helped create this new field.
The major difference between criminal forensic science and wildlife forensic science is that the victim (and occasionally the suspect) is an animal.
The identification of wildlife evidence, however, can be more complicated than human science in that wildlife enforcement officers rarely seize whole animals, which can be readily identified by a museum or zoo expert. They will more typically confiscate parts and products of these animals as evidence. The problem then is that the characteristics which define an animal species are rarely present in those parts or products.
Pelts and skins from endangered animals.
Wildlife forensic scientists are often required to develop new ways to identify species through research with carefully documented known specimens before they can examine evidence in a case and testify in court. An additional complication is that, while human forensics deals with only a single species (homo sapiens), wildlife forensic scientists must be prepared to identify evidence from any species in the world that is illegally killed, smuggled, poached, or sold on an illicit market. Examples of wildlife evidence items might be blood on an illegal hunter's clothing; fresh, frozen, or smoked meats; loose hair; fur coats; reptile leather products, such as purses, belts, and shoes; loose feathers and down; carved ivory objects; sea turtle oil (suntan lotion); shell jewelry; and powdered rhinoceros horn.
While it might seem that wildlife forensic scientists face an overwhelming task in developing new and reliable ID techniques, they do have one advantage over other forensic scientists: sample size is rarely a problem. Example seizures of wildlife evidence have included 20,000 pounds of suspected sea turtle meat, 10,000 pounds of ivory, and 300,000 suspected rhinoceros horn pills.
Illegal items made from ivory.
Suggested Additional Reading:
Saferstein R., Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science, 7th Edition (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall) 2001.
Inman, K. and Rudin, N., Principles and Practices of Criminalistics (New York, NY: CRC Press) 2001.
Digital & Multimedia Sciences
The advent of digital photography with its potential to aid in the documentation of crime scenes and injuries, as well as to speed up all aspects of photography from mug shots to autopsy, creates an important area of research and development. Such photographs present many challenges and the burdens of easy alteration must be balanced with the benefits of speed and economy. These issues extend to the computer imaging of crime scenes, suspect composites, and victim characteristics for possible identification. The reliability and scientific accuracy of computer recreations of crime scene events also remains an area for much-needed research.
There are several specialties in Digital & Multimedia Sciences. Digital & Multimedia Sciences professionals help develop the scientific foundations for the practice of digital forensics, including research and publication, or they may manage digital forensic laboratories.
The forensic sciences utilize multitudes of instruments, chemical tests, measuring devices, and numerous specialty tools to assist in forensic examinations. Laboratory accreditation is a mechanism for achieving quality assurance. Digital evidence examinations require very specific hardware and software tools to find numerous types of latent digital evidence. Digital forensic laboratories that are accredited require annual proficiency tests, like all other forensic specialties.
Examiners, depending upon their specialties, may discover and prove facts concerning the following:
• Digital device examinations
• Network analysis
• Examination and comparison of digitized numerals, images, and analog/digital
audio and video (which includes examinations such as authenticity,
photogrammetry and enhancement)
The work of the examiner might address some of the following questions:
• What files have been deleted from the digital device?
• Can a timeline of activity be established on this system?
• What other digital devices have been connected to this system?
• Was this system attacked or modified by someone over the network?
• Can a remote system or user be located or identified?
• What sites on the internet were visited by this system?
• Was this audio recording altered?
• Can this video recording be enhanced to help identify someone?
• Can the physical characteristics of an object in a photograph be determined?
Photographic analysis using photogrammetry.
Media analysis of a computer can recover
deleted files.
Video Analysis to enhance an image.
Tape recordings and digital voice identification protocols, acoustic and speech analysis continues to be an evolving area of research and application. With capacities to disguise voices by off-the-shelf technology, the investigation of underlying acoustic patterns has become one of many important areas of both technological and linguistic research.
Computer forensics has become important because recent intrusions to gain or corrupt information in other computer systems by criminals using computer technology to support their activities has become a major crime activity.
Education and Training
Candidates for an apprenticeship program in digital and multimedia sciences should possess a minimum of a bachelor’s degree, preferably in computer science, information technology, or engineering. In the United States, there are degree programs with emphasis in digital forensics or computer forensics, as well as some graduate degree and graduate certificate programs. Digital forensic examiners have various types of certifications. A certified professional not only possesses technical competencies but also adheres to a strong code of ethics.
Career Opportunities
Digital forensic examiners are employed in both the public and private sector. Private practice consultants can be found in most major cities. Many large police organizations, as well as most state and federal law enforcement agencies, generally employ digital forensic experts. Scientists who specialize in the field of digital & multimedia sciences work or practice in the following forensic areas: computer-related crime investigator, computer specialist, image enhancement specialist, speech scientist (voice identification, enhancement of recordings, validation and authentication of transcripts and/or recordings). Many qualified practitioners are members of the International Association of Computer Investigative Specialists (www.iacis.com), the High Technology Crime Investigation Association (www.htcia.org), the International Society of Forensic Computer Examiners (www.isfce.com), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) (www.ieee.org), and other professional groups and societies.
Audio analysis of a sound sample.
Engineering Sciences
Innovation and problem-solving are key traits of an engineer. An engineer applies the principles of mathematics and science for many purposes. The forensic engineer applies the art and science of engineering to the purpose of the law. Most requests for services involve civil suits. However, the forensic engineer may also assist in the prosecution or defense of criminal or regulatory matters.
Scope of Work
Questions posed to forensic engineers are in subjects as varied as the specialties of the engineers themselves. Typical subjects include: failure analysis, accident reconstruction, causes and origins of fires or explosions, design review, quality evaluation of construction or manufacturing, maintenance procedures, and environment definition. The scopes may range from entire communication networks or transportation systems to the molecular composition or grain structure of a specific component. Structures examined may range from skyscrapers, aircraft, or bridges to surgical implants or bones. Conclusions are applied in personal injury litigation, construction claims, contract or warranty disputes, patent or copyright infringements, criminal, and regulatory matters.
Some questions the engineer may be asked to answer are:
• Why did the vehicle roll over?
• How could the accident have happened?
• Why did the airplane crash?
• Why did the building collapse?
• Did defects exist?
Forensic engineers on-site investigating an accident.
In most legal disputes involving engineering issues, each party will hire its own engineer(s) for consultation and to testify on its behalf. In other words, the forensic engineer's work is subject to the scrutiny of other highly qualified professionals.
Education and Training
Forensic engineering is a specialized practice of the engineering sciences. Few universities offer courses in forensic engineering; therefore, the forensic engineer must develop his own credentials. The minimum education required is a bachelor's degree in engineering or an allied science. However, it is recommended that the forensic engineer have an advanced degree, when appropriate, and be a registered professional engineer. The forensic engineer must be highly competent, ethical, credible, and should have extensive professional experience in the subject matter under consideration. Other essential capabilities include writing and speaking skills, as well as evidence handling techniques. Knowledge and understanding of legal procedures and standards of proof are definite advantages. Active participation in professional organizations and continuing education are highly recommended.
Inspecting a product for design defect is just one of the many
applications called upon by the forensic engineer.
Career Opportunities
Forensic engineers may be employees of large corporations or government agencies. However, most forensic engineers are employed by small firms or are self-employed. Some perform their forensic services on a part-time basis or in addition to their other work (e.g., a college professor providing forensic engineering consultations). The competent, ethical, credible, and professional forensic engineer is in high demand now and will be in the foreseeable future.
General
"There is literally no end to the number of disciplines
that become ‘forensic’ by definition. Nor is there an
end in sight to the number of present or future specialties
that may become forensic. The examples are many."
— Anthony Longhetti, BA
Past-President, AAFS
Editorial, Journal of Forensic Sciences
1983;28:3-5
The General Section is the home of newly emerging forensic scientific specialties, and for those established areas of forensic science not fitting the more narrow definitions or membership requirements of the other sections, or those forensic specialists whose numbers are not sufficient to support a separate section.
Scope of Work
Members of the General Section include scientists with forensic specialties in the scientific areas of laboratory investigation, field investigation, clinical work, communication, computer investigation, education, research, and other emerging forensic science disciplines. These scientists are employed or practicing in the following areas of forensic activity: administrator, accountant, archaeologist, artist/ sculptor (including facial reconstruction), aviation accident investigator, ballistics analyst (ammunition performance and wound interpretation), forensic consultant, coroner (non-pathologist), crime scene investigator, medico-legal investigator, educator (potentially all forensic areas), marine biologist, nurse examiner, photographer, polygraph examiner, radiologist, researcher, rehabilitation specialist, and social worker - forensic applications.
Forensic skull reconstructionist sculpting a person's
skull to depict a close creation of the look of the
person for identification purposes.
New areas of forensic study result from a combination of unique problems faced by investigators and advances in natural and social sciences. Many of the well-established disciplines in the forensic sciences were nurtured in and emerged from the General Section of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences.
Ecological awareness brings the investigation of crime relating to the various aspects of hazardous waste, illegal dumping, and other such crimes against the environment to those with expertise in areas such as the forensic marine sciences, and many other sciences applied to environmental issues. Ecological crime involves some notion of gain, quite often financial in nature.
The development of sophisticated accounting software for the general public has lead to increases in both accounting errors and outright fraud. To help unearth the details of financial schemes, money laundering, and digital fraud on the Internet, an important area of investigation involving forensic accounting has been developed.
Education and Experience
All members of the General Section must have at least a bachelor's degree. Many of the disciplines represented require a master’s or doctorate degree. Work experience requirements vary with educational levels.
Career Opportunities
Many of the forensic scientists within the General Section work for colleges, universities, government agencies, police agencies (State, City, and local agencies), federal agencies (such as DEA, ATF, and FBI), and criminal investigation arms of the U.S. Army, U.S. Air Force, and their support laboratories. Others work for coroners, medical examiners, hospitals, and District Attorney's offices. Private companies and independent forensic specialists are consultants to both the prosecution or defense. Income is dependent on specialty and geographical area and generally is increasing for the well-trained forensic scientist. Career advancements are available in many agencies and are dependent on the discipline. Almost all agencies that support forensic science personnel provide opportunity for continuing in-service training, and many offer additional advanced training.
As crime continues to evolve with technology and society, forensic scientists will be challenged and will respond to the investigative demands by applying established technologies and, where necessary, developing new ones. These emerging forensic science disciplines will continue to be of vital importance to the courts and society in general.
Forensic radiologist interpreting x-rays for case preparation.
Jurisprudence
Forensic is defined by Black's Law Dictionary as "belonging to courts of justice." Forensic science is the application of science to assist courts in resolving questions of fact in criminal and civil trials. At the dawn of the new millennium, however, the jurisprudence of forensics applies a definition more broad than that of "forensic science."
Definitions of "science" are themselves under scrutiny by attorneys in courts of justice, and many areas of forensic science — defined by the law of evidence as "technical or other specialized knowledge" — are being evaluated by the courts under different standards of reliability. In this historical context, "forensic science" may generally be defined as the application of "scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge" to assist courts in resolving questions of fact in civil and criminal trials.
Scope of Work
Attorneys for the prosecution and the defense, as well as the judge, are lawyers. They are the main players in the drama of the courtroom. The lawyer who uses expert testimony in criminal and civil cases must be knowledgeable of the law that governs the admissibility of forensic evidence, and qualified to apply this law to present and challenge forensic evidence in depositions and court proceedings. The judge must understand all the issues and make sure of the legality of the entire process.
Although each deposition and court appearance is a unique experience, forensic witnesses may reasonably expect that direct and cross-examination will cover at least a few key areas. The lawyer may make a threshold inquiry into the field of specialization in which the witness claims to be an expert, reliability of that field of knowledge for judicial purposes, and the witness' qualifications in that field. This inquiry may address any and all formal education the witness has — or has not — completed. Education in the area of specialized knowledge in which the witness claims to be proficient will be most relevant. Any publications or other educational materials authored or edited by the witness and others in the field may be reviewed and addressed to either support or challenge the witness' opinions and conclusions. Professional or technical training in the area of specialization, the witness' performance in that training, and certifications or other credentials related to the areas of specialization, may also be addressed.
The witness' experience in the field of specialized knowledge may also be covered, together with any issues related to the witness' competent performance in the field. The witness' performance at work — including written and oral performance evaluations, disciplinary proceedings, and any other evidence relevant to the witness' experience — may be scrutinized. Testimony of the witness in other court proceedings may also be addressed if it may be used to undermine the reliability or validity of the witness' opinion in the case at hand.
Direct examination by the lawyer who retained the witness will progress in a manner that allows the witness to favorably state the witness' education, training, and experience in the witness' field of specialized knowledge; the facts of the case on which the witness relied in preparing any reports, summaries, or formulating any opinions for the case; any theories, techniques, methods, or procedures applied by the witness in understanding and interpreting the facts; and any conclusions or opinions the witness may have reached as a result of this process. Direct examination is typically a smooth, comfortable exposition of the witness' qualifications, reasoning, and opinion.
Cross-examination by opposing counsel is typically more challenging. The primary goal of cross-examination is to identify any weaknesses that may undermine the relevance, reliability, and/or validity of the witness' evidence. Weaknesses will be sought in the witness' qualifications, knowledge of the scope, limits, validity, and reliability of the witness' area of specialization, application of the area of specialized knowledge to the facts of the case, and/or relevance of the evidence to the issues in the case.
Courtroom testimony of an expert witness
explaining findings in a case.
Education and Training
Members of the Jurisprudence Section must possess a law degree and have passed a bar examination to practice law in one or more states. Continuing education is mandatory for the attorney to keep current in new issues. Judges are attorneys who have been appointed or elected to the bench. They, too, must take continuing education courses to continue to be qualified.
Career Opportunities
Attorneys may be employed in a variety of areas by a variety of organizations. Some are in private practice; others work in District Attorney's offices, State's Attorney's offices, Public Defender's offices or for the Federal Government. Some are employed by large private companies; still others teach in colleges and universities. Hours of work and income are dependent on geographical area and place of employment, experience, status and reputation, and type of practice.
Odontology
Forensic dentistry (odontology) is a vital branch of forensic science that involves the application of dental science to the identification of unknown human remains and bite marks, using both physical and biological dental evidence.
Scope of Work
Forensic dentists deal with a range of medicolegal problems. Identification of the human remains of natural disasters, terrorist activities, and missing and unknown persons is a central activity (http://ag.ca.gov/missing/content/mups.php). This may involve participation in autopsy examinations at the request of law enforcement, coroners, or medical examiners at the local or state level. The postmortem dental examination of human remains usually involves charting dental and cranial features, radiographic (x-ray) documentation of these features, and forensic report writing regarding these findings. A second step is the application of these findings to investigations by law enforcement to identify the missing or unknown person.
Dental identification plays a particularly important role in the identification of victims of catastrophic events where there are massive numbers of casualties such as airplane crashes (Pan Am flight 103 and American Airlines flight 587), fires, floods, earthquakes, or terrorist attacks (Oklahoma City Federal Building and the World Trade Center).
The identification of unknown persons may start at a disaster or crime scene or during the autopsy examination at the request of law enforcement, coroners, or medical examiners at the local or state level. Using both physical and biological dental evidence (a complete or fragmented jaw or a few teeth), the postmortem examination consists of a visual examination and x-rays. Information gathered during this examination along with cranial features, if available, is documented in a written report. This information is either used by law enforcement to assist in the investigation and/or coded into a computer identification program that contains both antemortem (before death) and postmortem (after death) dental records (www.winid.com). The computer compares these records in an attempt to match the unknown with known samples, records, or photographs.
Another important area of forensic dentistry is bite mark analysis in cases of assault, rape, and/or homicide. This is demanding work with rigorous standards requiring special training and experience. Inexperienced odontologists usually consult senior odontologists to serve as mentors when embarking on actual casework.
During bite mark analysis, the odontologist also may collect trace salivary evidence for later DNA profiling and matching.
Digital imaging methods may be used in comparing dental evidence from a homicide suspect.
Another activity is injury analysis that determines the presence and extent of dental injuries or physical neglect in an adult, children, and elderly abuse cases.
Odontologists also give expert testimony in civil litigation involving dental issues such as personal injury law, workers compensation, professional malpractice, and disputes regarding aspects of the dentist/patient relationship.
Two dental radiographs. Left is taken after death;
right is before death. The metal crown and dental
structures have similar outlines.
Education and Training
It is vital that a person interested in forensic odontology be properly educated and trained. A Doctor of Dental Science (DDS) degree is a basic; however, a traditional dental education does not provide the curriculum and experience that is required to function in this field. There are also opportunities for other dental professionals in the field as well.
The American Academy of Forensic Science (AAFS) is the forum for forensic dental lectures, demonstrations, and practical courses that are valuable educational experiences. The AAFS affiliated American Board of Forensic Odontology (www.abfo.org) serves as the highly regarded credentialing body for dentists who have satisfied experience and training requirements to sit for the challenging ABFO examination.
The American Society of Forensic Odontology (www.asfo.org) meets annually at the AAFS Annual Meeting. The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology offers week-long dental courses in odontology and pathology. The University of Texas, San Antonio provides a biennial program and a forensic dentistry fellowship program. The New York Society of Forensic Dentistry and the New York County Dental Society offer introductory courses in Forensic Odontology (www.nycdentalsociety.org). Post-graduate master's and PhD education is available in Canada (www.boldlab.org) and teaching institutions in Europe and Australia. Basic courses in forensic science and medicolegal death investigation are strongly recommended as specialized knowledge is necessary to participate in forensic investigations.
The objective of these courses and advanced training is to prepare the dental investigator to conduct thorough scientific and systematic scene investigations through use of approved techniques and methods. The best training will come from working with an experienced odontologist in a real situation.
Career Opportunities
There are many opportunities for forensic odontologists to have formal appointments or consulting relationships with coroners, medical examiners offices, state and local government agencies, and branches of the military. Reimbursement is on a fee-for-service or contractual basis. Private consultations are possible with insurance companies and legal firms.
It is common for court qualified forensic odontologists to testify in criminal and civil courtrooms. Expert testimony in civil and criminal litigation involves dental issues such as personal injury law, workers compensation, professional malpractice, disputes regarding aspects of the dentist-patient relationship, and identification of bite marks in criminal cases. Once a commitment is made to enter this field, the dental investigator needs to be current in the most accurate methods available, be aware of ethical values and conflicts, and possess the dedication to render assistance in a timely and professional manner.
Computer generated outline of teethplaced onto
digital picture of a humanbite mark.
Digital close-up image of the bite edges of a suspect's teeth
placed next to injury pattern seen in bite mark.
Pathology/Biology
Although forensic pathologists cannot perform all of the miracles seen on television shows such as "Quincy," "Law and Order," and “Crossing Jordan," it is an interesting and exciting field and is becoming a more popular and competitive career choice.
Pathology is a medical specialty — the study of disease. Pathologists study disease by performing a type of surgery called an autopsy and examining the tissues removed, and by observing surgically removed specimens under the microscope. Analysis of fluids taken from the body, such as blood or urine, also provides information about disease to the pathologist. Forensic pathology is the application of the principles of pathology, and of medicine in general, to the legal needs of society.
Forensic pathologists perform autopsies to determine what caused a person's death. They are also involved in the investigation of the circumstances surrounding the death. Knowing about these circumstances allows them to determine the manner of death — natural, accident, suicide, homicide, or undetermined.
Forensic histotechnologist preparing tissue
for microscopic slide examination.
Although there is much emphasis on violent deaths (deaths due to homicide, accident, or suicide), forensic pathologists also investigate sudden deaths of apparently healthy individuals (those not currently being treated for a disease which could account for the sudden death), the death of someone who has never seen a doctor (unattended), deaths occurring in police custody, suspicious or unusual deaths, deaths that may be the result of surgical or diagnostic procedure which could be a therapeutic misadventure, or some deaths which occur in public institutions. The law of the specific jurisdiction where the death occurs determines which deaths must be reported to the medical examiner (often a forensic pathologist) or, in some states, the coroner. Then it is the responsibility of the medical examiner or coroner to determine if an autopsy is necessary to determine the cause and manner of death.
Attending and resident pathologists at
weekly Neuropathology Conference.
Scope of Work
The forensic pathologist's involvement and investigation may include visiting the scene of death. Forensic pathologists and/ or their investigators gather information concerning what happened at the time of death, what the person was doing at the time, and the medical history of the person.
The forensic examination of a body includes examining the clothing on the body, the body itself, and an internal examination of the organs, which is the autopsy. The body is usually photographed and diagramed, with a detailed written report describing any injuries or disease process. The autopsy usually includes microscopic examination of the tissues of the body. X-rays may also be taken to look for bullets, broken bones, or other abnormalities.
The forensic pathologist works with other branches of the forensic sciences. The forensic pathologist may collect evidence from the body such as blood and hairs in an assault case, swabs for examination for semen in rape cases, and fibers from the decedent's clothing and body. These are sent to the forensic laboratory for examination by a criminalist — a scientist trained in the collection and examination of physical evidence. The forensic pathologist also collects specimens, such a blood, urine, bile, as well as stomach contents and body tissues, for toxicology analysis. The toxicologist looks for the presence of alcohol, drugs, and other chemicals or poisons in these specimens. If bullets, shotgun pellets, or wadding are recovered at autopsy, they are also sent to the forensic laboratory for examination. A firearms examiner analyzes these specimens and is often able to match them to a specific gun.
Forensic pathologists also work to identify unknown deceased persons by way of medical information, dental records, and other peculiarities of an individual. If the body has deteriorated to a skeleton, forensic pathology may determine the race or sex of the individual. Forensic pathologists are often assisted by forensic odontologists (dentists) and physical anthropologists.
Examination of the deceased may reveal whether the person received injuries, also called trauma, both prior to (antemortem), and after (postmortem) death, as well as which changes to the body occurred as a result of decomposition after death.
Each type of injury (gunshot, blunt force, sharp force, et al.) often can be recognized by a distinctive pattern. Forensic pathologists are trained to recognize these patterns and thereby determine the cause and manner of death. Injury patterns are especially important in cases of child abuse or infanticide (the killing of children) and in elder abuse.
Autopsy findings must correlate with the other known physical and circumstantial evidence. Oftentimes, examination of the body may reveal that the victim died in a distant location and in a very different position from the situation in which the body was actually found. The forensic pathologist's opinions and the autopsy results are vital components of any medico-legal death investigation. The forensic pathologist must maintain accurate and unbiased written and photographic records. His work may lead either to the conviction of the guilty or the exoneration of the innocent.
A little known aspect of forensic pathology is the role this science plays in the areas of public health and disease and injury prevention. Epidemic disease recognition and control as well as observance of faulty consumer product design, which may cause disease or injury, are of utmost importance not only to the forensic pathologist, but society as a whole. In addition, genetic disorders common to a particular family may be identified and reported to those affected.
An emerging role of the forensic pathologist is that of clinical forensic pathology. Patterns of injury are not only visible when persons are deceased; they can be recognized in living patients in emergency rooms and clinics. This is especially critical in cases of child and elder abuse. The interpretation of these injuries is invaluable to police or other law enforcement officials in a criminal investigation.
The forensic pathologist must always be willing to reach out to bereaved families as well as to communicate with other physicians, attorneys, and law enforcement officers in an effort to provide all those who have need, with proper, accurate, and timely information. Assistance to those who are left to deal with the loss and trauma surrounding the death of a human being is the reason for the work of the forensic pathologist.
Forensic pathologists microscopically examining
autopsy slides for signs of disease and trauma.
Education and Training
All forensic pathologists are medical doctors. Therefore, the training requirements involve many years of studious effort. After four years of college and four years of medical school, an apprenticeship in pathology, known as a residency, is required. Forensic pathology is a subspecialty of pathology, so an additional one or two-year fellowship — specifically in forensic pathology — must then be completed after college, medical school, internship, and pathology residency. Certification in pathology or one of its several subspecialties is acquired from The American Board of Pathology.
Other physicians with MD or DO degrees or scientists with a PhD degree in a biological-related field may also qualify for membership in the Pathology/Biology Section of the AAFS.
Career Opportunities
Forensic pathologists are usually employed by city, county or state medical examiners' offices, hospitals, and federal government agencies, such as the Center for Disease Control (CDC) and the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP).
Physical Anthropology
The next time you read in the newspaper or hear on the radio or TV that a body or skeleton has been found, it is likely that a forensic anthropologist will be contacted to identify it. Forensic anthropologists are also called to identify individuals killed in disasters such as plane crashes, explosions, fires, and other tragedies resulting in the loss of life and mutilation of bodies.
In this society, identification of the dead is important for many reasons. The initial step in homicide investigations is usually determining the identity of the victim. This not only concerns relatives of the deceased, but also judicial authorities who need to know whether someone is alive or dead so that wills can be read, estates settled, second marriages can be contracted, and so forth. Law enforcement agencies need to know if recovered bones are human or non-human. If they are human and of recent origin, the individual must be identified, and the cause of death and time elapsed since death need to be determined. If they are old, human bones, perhaps a burial ground has been uncovered.
Anthropologists using a metal
detector for recovery of materials
during crime scene analysis.
Scope of Work
The scientist performing this task is usually a physical anthropologist who has specialized in the study of human skeletal biology. Physical anthropologists have a long tradition of the study of human skeletal remains from ancient societies. The techniques they have developed to determine sex, age, ancestral background (race), health status, marks of trauma and occupational stress, and stature in life also have proven extremely useful in forensic sciences.
Forensic anthropologists are skilled in the identification of skeletal materials. In addition to their efforts to document age, sex, stature, race, and other characteristics of the specimens under investigation, they are familiar with various types of injuries and can work with forensic pathologists to establish cause of death. Many forensic anthropologists have training in archaeological methods and assist law enforcement agencies in the initial investigations of crime scenes. Anthropologists, with their naturalistic approach to recovery of skeletons, examination of animal remains, and analysis of soil and vegetation patterns, can successfully recover human remains from different kinds of terrain; e.g., deserts, forests, river systems, etc.
Some forensic anthropologists are skilled in the art of facial reproduction which involves the modeling of how a face may have appeared in the living subject for which the only surviving evidence is a skull. Other forensic anthropologists have developed skills in the determination of time elapsed since death by examining insect remains (entomology) and states of body decompositions.
Skeletal remains are x-rayed and studied to
provide additional information as to who the
Person was and possibly the cause of death.
Education and Training
Forensic anthropologists usually earn a PhD in anthropology with an emphasis on the study of human osteology and anatomy. The course of study will vary, but each person is broadly trained in physical or biological anthropology with an emphasis in skeletal biology. What sets forensic anthropologists apart from other physical anthropologists is their research emphasis on issues affecting contemporary human populations. It is necessary to gain practical experience in forensic anthropology before court systems will accept an individual as an expert witness in the field.
The American Board of Forensic Anthropology (ABFA) was created for the purpose of certifying experts in the field of forensic anthropology as well as establishing a forum for all members of the section who perform forensic anthropology services. For Board certification, it is necessary to demonstrate practical experience as judged by case reports that are submitted for review. Also for Board certification, a PhD is required and a written and practical examination must be passed. Requirements for certification may be found at the ABFA website (www.theabfa.org).
Career Opportunities
Forensic anthropology is practiced nearly everywhere there are skeletons to be examined. Traditionally, forensic anthropologists worked out of their laboratories at major research institutions or universities. The U.S. Government has recently hired forensic anthropologists at the U.S. Army-Central Human Identification Laboratory for repatriation issues. The Armed Forces Institute of Pathology - Office of the Armed Forces Medical Examiner employs a forensic anthropologist as a Deputy Chief Medical Examiner, and various state and local medical examiner offices use forensic anthropologists as medical investigators or administrators. Additionally, state and federal law enforcement agencies have hired physical anthropologists to act as special agents and laboratory personnel.
The field of forensic anthropology is an exciting and growing one with many opportunities available to interested persons. Students wishing to know more about this field should include in their training programs courses in statistics, archaeological recovery methods, human anatomy, and skeletal biology.
Psychiatry & Behavioral Science
A broad range of legal issues is addressed by forensic psychologists and psychiatrists as they work with criminal and civil cases and other areas such as family and domestic relations law. In criminal law, such issues as competence (e.g., competency to stand trial and to testify, to waive legal representation, or to be executed), and the assessment of mental illness as it relates to diminished responsibility or innocence by reason of mental illness or defect are the focus. Civil law requires assessment of such issues as involuntary psychiatric hospitalization, right to refuse treatment, competency to participate in do-not resuscitate decisions, and disability compensation among others. Issues in family and domestic relations may include juvenile delinquency, child custody, parental fitness, domestic abuse, adoption, and foster care.
Scope of Work
Given the scope of the practice, forensic psychiatrists and psychologists often spend a significant amount of time interfacing with lawyers and judges, and are trained in giving expert testimony.
In organizing the components of a forensic psychiatry assessment, a four-step series of questions is often used:
• What is the specific psychiatric-legal issue?
• What are the legal criteria that decide this issue?
• What are the relevant psychiatric-legal data?
• What is the reasoning process used to reach the concluding opinion?
A single person may represent several different issues, each of which may be addressed separately. For example, a defendant in a criminal law case may be questioned about his criminal responsibility for the offense, the validity of the confession that he made to police officers, his competence to cooperate with his attorney in his own defense, his capacity to abide by the terms of probation if applied, and the likelihood of his being dangerous if he were discharged to the community. Some of these issues address the past (e.g., mental functioning and behavior at the time of the alleged offense or at the time of the confession), some issues address the present (competence to cooperate with legal counsel), and some address the future (abiding by the terms of probation). The data collected will differ depending on whether the psychiatrist is addressing past, present, or future mental functioning and behavior. One result of the complex nature of these issues is that there is no such thing as a general forensic psychiatric examination. There is only a series of specific psychiatric-legal issues in each case.
Education and Training
Psychiatrists are medical doctors who have completed twelve years of education between college, medical school, and residency training in psychiatry. Forensic psychiatrists also will have additional education and experience in areas relevant for law.
Some forensic psychiatrists take an additional one or two years of post-residency training in psychiatry-and-the-law. Others pursue a career of independent study and on-the-job training. The American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology certifies competence in forensic psychiatry of those specialists who have passed its special examinations in forensic psychiatry. There is also an Accreditation Council on Fellowships in Forensic Psychiatry that certifies the quality of post-residency sub-specialty fellowship training programs.
Forensic psychologists major in behavioral science during their four years of college, complete an additional one to two years of training for a master's degree, and spend an additional four to six years in graduate school to obtain a PhD in psychology. Some psychologists take post-doctoral fellowship training in forensic psychology. Some psychologists have independently studied and obtained on-the-job-training in forensic psychology. These specialists then apply to the American Board of Professional Practice in Psychology for certification through examination in the specialty of forensic psychology.
Career Opportunities
Forensic psychiatrists and forensic psychologists may be employed in private practice, by city, county, and state government, by hospitals, and by the federal government. They work in a prison or state hospital setting for example, or have their own private practice serving as consultants to a broad range of organizations that may present with problems which interface with psychiatry, the behavioral sciences, and the law.
Questioned Documents
The document examiner discovers and proves the facts concerning documents and related material, such as ink, paper, toner from a copier or fax, and ribbons, such as from a typewriter. The bulk of the examiner's caseload rests upon answering questions such as:
• Who wrote this?
• Is this a true signature?
• Has this document been altered?
• Are there additions and/or erasures on this check?
• Was this pen used to write this?
• Tell me about this paper.
Scope of Work
A document examiner may also be requested to examine items on a document to establish the manufacturing source, similarities or differences, first production date, or date used (a most difficult task). This is done by using chemical and/or physical analysis. Items to be examined may include inks (writing, printing, stamp pad, ink jet and typewriter), toners, pencil marks, erasure residues, correction material, and paper. Most of these tasks require the use of a good collection of known standards to which to compare. Often a criminalist is called to assist.
Education and Training
Candidates for an apprenticeship program in questioned documents should possess a minimum of a bachelor's degree, preferably in one of the sciences. There are presently no degree programs with emphasis in forensic document examination available in the United States. Colleges and universities offer questioned document or related courses as part of criminal justice, forensic science, or criminalistics degree programs. An apprenticeship program lasting approximately two years under the direct supervision of a Full Member or Fellow of the Questioned Documents Section of the AAFS, or a member of the American Society of Questioned Document Examiners, or one who is a Diplomate of the American Board of Questioned Document Examiners, is required.
A close-up of the hand-altered area of a check.
A comparison of the differences in typescript examinations.
A physical match of the paper from a robbery
note that was left at the scene to a piece
of paper found in the suspect's car.
Career Opportunities
Forensic document examiners are employed in both the public and private sectors. Private practice consultants can be found in most major cities. Many large police organizations, as well as most state and federal law enforcement agencies generally employ forensic document experts. Many qualified practitioners are members of the American Society of Questioned Examiners (www.asqde.org), Southeastern Association of Forensic Document Examiners (www.safde.org), and are certified by the American Board of Forensic Document Examiners (www.abfde.org).
Toxicology
Toxicology is the study of harmful effects of chemicals or drugs on living systems. Forensic toxicology is that branch of toxicology that deals with the medico-legal aspects of toxicology. Forensic toxicologists answer the question, "Did prescription or illegal drugs and/or alcohol lead or contribute to the person's death or intoxication?" Answering this question often requires law enforcement officers, forensic pathologists, forensic toxicologists, other forensic scientists, and crime scene investigators to work together.
Figure 1: The information triangle -A collaboration of input
and informationfrom three areas: toxicology, pathology
and scene investigations. This can leadto the interpretation
of a cause andmanner of death.
Scope of Work
There are several areas of specialization within the field, which offer a variety of career paths. One, postmortem toxicology, involves the determination of the contribution of drugs or other chemicals to the circumstances of the death. The forensic toxicology laboratory contributes a critical perspective to a death investigation, working with a forensic pathologist, and scene investigators, to determine which drug analyses or poisons are involved (Figure 1). This is accomplished by performing tests on body fluid and tissue samples received from the forensic pathologist, and then assisting with the interpretation of the findings. This effort requires knowledge of analytical chemistry techniques, including instrument methods (Figure 2) utilizing gas and liquid chromatographic techniques, mass spectrophotometry, UV-Visible spectrophotometry, flame emission and absorption spectrophotometric techniques, antigen-antibody immunoassay methods, as well as, traditional qualitative and quantitative methods of analysis. An inquiring mind is required, along with the ability to apply knowledge of chemistry and pharmacology to solving real world puzzles.
(Figure 3).
Figure 2: Instrumental automation as
exemplified by the automated sampler
which can extend the work day and lead
to increased case analysis and decreased
turnaround time.
Figure 3a: The ion source in a mass
spectrophotometer. Gas chromatography/
mass spectrophotometry (GC/MS) is a
technology that represents a definitive means
of identifying the presence of a substance.
Other forensic toxicologists work with law enforcement agencies in the investigation of crimes in which an individual's drug or alcohol use is an element of the crime or may be a defense. This involves the same application of techniques as in the death investigation setting, but typically deals with lower concentrations of drugs, requiring greater sensitivity of testing. The interpretation of the test results in this area is the greatest challenge, applying knowledge from clinical and medical studies, and experience in the field, to give an opinion about the affects of a drug or combination of drug on an individual at the time of the crime or accident.
Workplace drug testing and forensic urine drug testing has become an important aspect of employment and industries with hazardous work conditions or jobs affecting the safety of others. This aspect of forensic toxicology is usually confined to the detection of specific drugs of abuse in a large number of urine samples with some laboratories performing tests on over 10,000 urine samples each day. As with all of the forensic environments, there is a strong emphasis of record keeping, chain-of custody documentation, stringent quality control, and data management. The challenge is to get the testing of such large numbers done as reliably and efficiently as possible. Developments in this area include the evaluation of specimens other than blood or urine for drug testing, such as sweat, hair, and saliva.
Forensic toxicology testing also contributes in other areas, as varied as wildlife crimes involving the poisoning of animals, the use of drugs to facilitate sexual assault, and drug use and doping in human and animal sports. In all of the aspects of forensic toxicology, the interpretation of the results is a consistent challenge. The results obtained are determined by tests that are complex and difficult for most juries and lawyers to fully understand and appreciate. Therefore, the toxicologist must have or develop the ability to describe the process involved, the findings determined, and the relevant interpretation derived in a straightforward and easily understood manner.
Figure 3b: A selective ion monitored (SIM) graphic taken
from a derivatized GC/MS analysis. From this data
the presence of a specific drug metabolite,
6-acetylmorphine (6-AM), is confirmed to be present in an
acute heroin death. 6-AM is a drug metabolite
which specifically documents heroin use.
Education and Training
A bachelor's degree in a physical science including a solid background in chemistry and coursework in pharmacology is an ideal mix of educational qualifications for a toxicologist. There are some graduate programs offering coursework in forensic toxicology to the master's or PhD level (click here for info). Many enter toxicology after working in or pursuing education in other areas such as medicinal chemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, or clinical chemistry. Membership in the section requires at least one year of additional experience and work which meets other requirements of scholarly production or advanced study. The American Board of Forensic Toxicology and the Forensic Toxicology Certification Board offer professional certification to scientists with work experience in forensic toxicology.
Career Opportunities
This is an exciting field in which to interact with other professionals and to work with different types of cases. Forensic toxicologists work in police or law enforcement laboratories, medical examiner laboratories, and workplace drug testing laboratories. Other career opportunities exist in hospitals, universities and industry laboratories, and with agencies which monitor drug use in sports.
The Society of Forensic Toxicology (SOFT)(www.soft-tox.org) is a leading professional society for toxicologists in the United States. They maintain internet links to most major professional societies and toxicologist Certification Boards. The International Association of Forensic Toxicologists (www.tiaft.org) is another excellent source of international reference materials. These websites provide many additional details concerning career opportunities in the field of toxicology.
Resource List
AOAC International
www.aoac.org
American Academy of Forensic Sciences
www.aafs.org
American Academy of Psychiatry & the Law
www.aapl.org
American Board of Forensic Anthropology
www.theabfa.org
American Board of Criminalistics
www.criminalistics.com
American Board of Forensic Document Examiners, Inc.
www.asqde.org
American Board of Forensic Odontology
www.abfo.org
American Board of Forensic Psychology
www.abfp.com
American Board of Forensic Toxicology
www.abft.org
American Board of Medicolegal Death Investigators
www.slu.edu/organizations/abmdi
American Board of Pathology
www.abpath.org
American Institute of Forensic Education
www.educationforensic.com
American Society of Crime Lab Directors
www.ascld.org
American Society of Forensic Odontology
www.asfo.org
American Society of Questioned Document Examiners
www.asqde.org
Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners
www.afte.org
Australian and New Zealand Forensic Science Society
http://anzfss-vic.blogspot.com
California Association of Toxicologists
www.Cal-tox.org
Canadian Society of Forensic Science
www.csfs.ca
Council on Forensic Science Education
www.criminology.fsu.edu/COFSE/default.html
Forensic DNA Consulting
www.forensicdna.com
Forensic Nurse
www.theforensicnurse.com
Forensic Science Society
www.forensic-science-society.org.uk
High Technology Crime Investigation Association
www.htcia.org
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
www.ieee.org
International Association of Computer Investigative Specialists
www.iacis.com
International Association for Identification
www.theiai.org
International Association of Forensic Nurses
www.forensicnurse.org
International Association of Forensic Toxicologists
www.tiaft.org
International Institute of Forensic Engineering Sciences
www.ifes.org
International Society of Forensic Computer Examiners
www.isfce.com
National Association of Medical Examiners
www.thename.org
Society of Forensic Toxicologists
www.soft-tox.org
Southeastern Association of Forensic Document Examiners
www.safde.org
Southeastern Association of Toxicologists
www.sat-tox.org
Southwestern Association of Forensic Document Examiners
www.swafde.org
Young Forensic Scientists Forum
http://yfsf.aafs.org
For more forensic links, click here.
For information about the folks who brought you this book, the Forensic Sciences Foundation, Incorporated, click HERE.
Please direct all questions/comments to Sonya Bynoe at the AAFS Office at sbynoe@aafs.org.
For a list of colleges and universities who offer both undergraduate and graduate programs in forensic science within the United States as well as internationally, click HERE.
Produced for the American Academy of Forensic Sciences by:
The Forensic Sciences Foundation, Inc.
410 N. 21st Street
Colorado Springs, CO 80904
(719) 636-1100
Fax (719) 636-1993
Ronald Singer, MS, Chair, Board of Trustees
Anne Warren, BS, Executive Director
Co-Editors:
Gil Brogdon, MD
Carla Noziglia, MS
The Forensic Sciences Foundation, Inc., is a non-profit tax exempt organization under
Section 501 (c) (3) of the Internal Revenue Code.
Copyright © 1996-2011 American Academy of Forensic Sciences.
